TOK Essay – To what extent is the knowledge we produce determined by the methodologies we use?

Discuss with reference to history and one other area of knowledge. 

The notions of knowledge and methodology waltz along the boundary of interdependence. They drift back and forth in this haze of uncertainty, with each independent thinker’s postulations pushing these concepts closer together, or pulling them further apart. Yet, taking a holistic approach in studying the relationship between these ideas indicates a state of simultaneity, where concrete answers are impossibilities and discussions of both are warranted. Thus, “methodologies” will refer to the procedure employed by researchers in each field to produce or verify knowledge, with the latter word referring to findings yielded as a byproduct of their investigations. The areas of knowledge addressed throughout the length of this essay are history and the natural sciences, as both contain a diverse array of methodologies apt for the provision of a holistic perspective on how researchers approach the production of knowledge. Through exploring the significance (or lack thereof) of various methodologies as they relate to each area of study, one can not only gain insight into the workings of the specific field itself, but also observe the parallels between the two.

History is highly unique in that conclusions of absolute certainty from most methodologies are rare. Because historians rely on specific sets of accessible information, there is emphasis placed on the interpretation of evidence in comparison to what the source itself claims. Historiography—the study of the “history, philosophy and methodology of history (Vladosta),” is not entirely speculative. The Spanish Influenza, lasting from 1918–19 (Barry, 2004), has been studied for the sake of determining the origin of the disease. Though it implies the outbreak arose within Spain, evidence applied to different methodologies favored other theories. An empirical approach of analyzing autopsy reports of soldiers allowed a French origin theory. However, a theory for Asia cited previous outbreaks of pulmonary disease and applied Migration studies as the methodology. Presently, the accepted theory suggests the US as the Flu’s primary appearance (Fujimura, 2003), such a theory was only founded on the basis of first disproving current postulations. Dr. Jordan, the individual behind the claim, “spent years reviewing evidence from all over the world” (Barry, 2004) before coming up with his own. This is a component of methodology—vastly different from both using empirical evidence or citing migration patterns. Thus, the knowledge we produce is quite dependent on the methodologies used to obtain it. Additionally, because the US origin was only proposed when other theories were ruled out, this theory was the byproduct of the methodologies used by historians to come up with the less-accepted or disproved theories. Therefore, it was the evolution of methodologies, subsequently disproven over time—in addition to Dr. Jordan’s own research, which yielded the most reliable results, indicating that current knowledge relies heavily on methodology.

On the other hand, certain aspects of history may simply be entirely shrouded in the realm of obscurity, that differentiating methodologies don’t matter, as the primary foundation of evidence historians have to work with yields equally unreliable theories, or a single immensely reliable theory. French historian Charles Seignobos once famously stated, “History is made with documents…No documents, no history” (McCullagh, 2017). This emphasizes the importance of there being evidence to support the events of the past, and how postulations are rendered void when little proof is presented. Lack of knowledge may arise from a multitude of circumstances. It may be poor or no documentation of specific events, with evidence being lost to time, or the minimal priority placed on keeping historical documents at the time. It may also be the  purposeful omission or even sabotage of information due to social and political circumstances. An example of this is the burning of books under the authority of Emperor Qin Shi Huang. This was a deliberate erasure of historical records to prevent freedom of thought that opposed authority in Ancient China (Norman). In such situations, a lack of accessible solid evidence and pre-existing information for historians lent towards the imposition of limitations on the means in which methodology was applied to the derivation of knowledge, yet supported conclusions of an indirect nature were still yielded. This is known as “evidence of absence,” where lack of evidence indicates an alternative theory rather than inhibiting the formation of one. Although Confucian texts were lost in the Book Burnings, the holes that bore into Chinese history allowed historians to make singular and substantial claims, not in regards to the information the lost texts contained, but the brutality of Qin Shi Huang’s rule. This demonstrates how evidence played a larger role in synthesizing a conclusion than methodology. Because there was barely any information to work with, historians didn’t have the means to develop complex methods of processing information. Thus, “evidence of absence” led to a singular conclusion, demonstrating how methodology wasn’t as important in this circumstance.

The natural sciences have less variation in the methodologies used to approach a conclusion. Because of the highly objective nature of the discipline, standardizing procedure is easier, and any type of variation in what is theorized is most likely a product of technological limitation affecting the methodology rather than bias or incompetence. An example of this is the existence of the Fluid-Mosaic Model. Its falsified predecessor, the Lipoprotein Sandwich, was proposed by Davson & Danielli, and describes the composition of the cell membrane. The methodology that they used at the time to propose such a theory was optimal for the resources that were available in the early 20th century (Aryal et al., 2022). That—with the existing knowledge of biology at the time, resulted in the best conclusion they could’ve come up with. Though it wasn’t a correct conclusion, it wasn’t the methodology that was limiting, but their technology. The Fluid-Mosaic Model was proposed much later in the 1970s with the help of electron micrographs which were more available at the time (Libretexts, 2022). Therefore, though both methodologies were competent with the resources each of the scientists had access to, only one yielded an accurate outcome, thus the methodology is significant to a lesser extent, as its formulation is entirely based on the circumstances of the time.

On the other hand, one could argue that the technologies used within the methodology are a component of the methodology itself, and should not be separate entities. For example, the propagation of Endosymbiotic theory, explaining the origination of the mitochondria and chloroplast within plant and animal cells was dependent on technology within the methodology. Though the theory was first articulated by Mereschkowski in the early 20th century, and then proposed as a footnote by Schimper in his research, it was taken seriously when observations made by Ris in more detailed electron micrographs, from improved technology, found similarities between cyanobacteria and chloroplasts. Because of the theory’s surge in notoriety in science, the theory was then continuously fleshed out by other scientists (Bionity). If electron microscopy weren’t a component in methodology, the theory wouldn’t gained traction. Therefore, when considering technology as a direct component of methodology, Ris’ revival and propagation of the theory with the electron microscope acted as a gateway for further research and its now-established nature in the field, demonstrating that new knowledge is immensely dependent on the methodology.

Though arguments for the significance and lack thereof of methodology can be substantiated in both disciplines, it is assumed that there is always an underlying prevalence of a methodology’s presence in the acquisition of knowledge. This takes on different forms within each AOK yielding results of varying credibility. Historiography is an extensive discipline, and consists of an array of approaches used by researchers due to the variability of situations they are faced with. However, the often case-specific approach taken questions the integrity of such methodologies themselves. Because methodologies are so numerous, one must evaluate whether this hinders their credibility, as having a small amount of “good methodologies” should not necessitate the constant synthesis of new ones. This is juxtaposed with the natural sciences, which put forth straightforward, widely applicable methodologies such as the scientific method. In these instances, it is vital to analyze the factors that play a role in producing knowledge in conjunction with the methodology. Because standardized methods can act as controls, factors such as quality of evidence and tools can be evaluated to determine what is most important in terms of producing knowledge, and the extent of interdependence of such elements.

Regardless of the discipline, the relationship between knowledge and methodology is highly circumstantial. However, discussions of certain perspectives display a parallelism that transcends the traditional perception of the distinctiveness between History and the Natural Sciences. The argument of the vitality of methodology for Spanish Influenza and Endosymbiotic theory, is predicated upon the notion that accepted knowledge produced from current methodologies can only be acquired through the collation of past theories and tools in each past phase of methodology. On the other hand, both research into the Book Burnings in Ancient China, as well as the synthesis of the Fluid-Mosaic model demonstrated that modern and historical circumstance takes precedence over methodology. Through such analysis, it is indisputable that methodology underlies all examples presented to varying degrees. However, this is precisely why it is not possible to evaluate the quality and content of knowledge only based on this singular factor. The variability of pertinence may not be a result of pure methodology at all, but the ways in which it works in conjunction with other elements to arrive at a conclusion. History and the Natural Sciences also have entirely different criteria for considering the viability and credibility of a methodology. Thus, when external and internal components of an investigation or experiment shift, so does the pertinence of methodology and obtained knowledge.

Word count: 1598

Citations

Aryal, S., Aga, E. M., & Borifan. (2022, September 24). Sandwich (Davson–Danielli) model of cell membrane. Microbe Notes. Retrieved February 11, 2023, from https://microbenotes.com/sandwich-davson-danielli-model-of-cell-membrane/

Barry, J. M. (2004, January 20). The site of origin of the 1918 influenza pandemic and its public health implications. Journal of translational medicine. Retrieved February 11, 2023, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC340389/

Bionity. (n.d.). Endosymbiotic theory. Endosymbiotic_theory. Retrieved March 4, 2023, from https://www.bionity.com/en/encyclopedia/Endosymbiotic_theory.html 

Fujimura, S. F. (2003). Purple death: The great flu of 1918. PAHO/WHO | Pan American Health Organization. Retrieved February 11, 2023, from https://www.paho.org/en/who-we-are/history-paho/purple-death-great-flu-1918#:~:text=Despite%20its%20name%2C%20researchers%20believe,breeding%20ground%20for%20the%20virus

Libretexts. (2022, June 9). 23.1C: Endosymbiosis and the evolution of Eukaryotes. Biology LibreTexts. Retrieved February 11, 2023, from https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A_General_Biology_(Boundless)/23%3A_Protists/23.01%3A_Eukaryotic_Origins/23.1C%3A_Endosymbiosis_and_the_Evolution_of_Eukaryotes#:~:text=The%20endosymbiotic%20theory%20was%20first,that%20of%20free%2Dliving%20cyanobacteria

Libretexts. (2022, June 9). 5.2: Components and structure – fluid mosaic model. Biology LibreTexts. Retrieved February 11, 2023, from https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A_General_Biology_(Boundless)/05%3A_Structure_and_Function_of_Plasma_Membranes/5.02%3A_Components_and_Structure_-_Fluid_Mosaic_Model

McCullagh, D. (2017, January 20). ‘no documents, no history’. RTE.ie. Retrieved February 11, 2023, from https://www.rte.ie/news/analysis-and-comment/2017/0119/846262-no-documents-no-history/#:~:text=He%20believed%20this%20collection%20would,right%3B%20so%20was%20de%20Valera

Norman, J. M. (n.d.). The first emperor of China destroys most records of the past along with 460, or more, scholars. The First Emperor of China Destroys Most Records of the Past Along with 460, or More, Scholars : History of Information. Retrieved February 11, 2023, from https://www.historyofinformation.com/detail.php?id=2491

Vladosta. (n.d.). What is history? how do historians study the past as contrasted with … Retrieved February 11, 2023, from https://www.valdosta.edu/history/documents/what-is-history.pdf